Edinburgh Tram System Project

Edinburgh Tram System Project Abstract Tram systems offer a cheaper and more environmentally friendly alternative to providing public transport to city residents while also serving to reduce traffic congestion. The Edinburgh tramway project, which forms the basis of this paper, was initiated for the same reasons.Advertising We will write a custom report sample on Edinburgh Tram System Project specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The paper presents an analysis of this project in terms of its description and management with references to theories that have been established to address the subject of project management. The project turned out to be one of the most controversial tramway projects in England. It was characterised by massive delays and changes in the project’s cost estimates. Political matters took the centre stage, with different politicians taking advantage of the controversy that surrounded the project to achieve their interests. Interest in the pro ject was mainly from the Scottish population and politicians. Scotland’s government was the main financier. The whole project was divided into several contracts that focused on specific sections and phases of the project. Other similar projects in the UK have some connection with the Edinburgh project. As the paper confirms, they offer great lessons on the management of any project. Introduction The Edinburgh Tram Network Project is located in Scotland in the United Kingdom. According to Boateng, one of the reasons for the initiation of the project was to support the region’s local economy in terms of improvement of accessibility of various places within it1. Secondly, the project intended to promote sustainability whilst minimising significantly the level of environmental damage that resulted from heavy traffic. Another purpose was to solve the problem of traffic congestion in Edinburgh. Issues such as safety and security of the transport system were also a major conc ern in the initiation and implementation of the project. Moreover, the project was expected to have immense social benefits to the residents of the areas that the rail line served.Advertising Looking for report on railway transport? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More In the project’s scope, the tramline constitutes of a double track that connect the city centre to Edinburgh Airport. The track also links areas of development in West and North Edinburgh. With this hint about the project, this paper begins by providing its brief description. It also analyses the project’s management process with reference to salient theories that are applicable in project management. Lastly, the paper also provides some key lesson that project managers can learn from this development. Project Description Edinburgh Trams, which is run by Transport for Edinburgh Company, is a rail line that stretches from York Place to Edinburg h Airfield. The stretch that covers a distance of about 14 kilometres has 15 areas of offloading and loading of passengers. According to Lowe, work in the project started in the mid 20082. However, the project was marred with many controversies that led to delays in its official opening. As Crowther reveals, work on a section of the tramway was halted at the start of 2009 because of contractual disputes between BSC and TIE following the former’s request for an extra funding of 80 million pounds3. The Edinburgh Council felt that the contractors were short-changing it, given that the contract was based on fixed price terms. Much negotiations followed shortly thereafter with the contractors agreeing to resume construction work before mid 2009 whilst operating within the original budget, regardless of the witnessed disputes. Later, in August of the same year, TIE instituted legal proceedings against BSC over delays in its handling of the project. In most of the disputes, BSC foun d favour in the court. It received an award of 90% of the additional costs. As McKie confirms, the initial cost estimate of the development was 375 million pounds4. However, Lowe confirms that during the signing of the construction contract, the initial cost figures had risen from 375 million pounds to 500 million pounds5. The closing expenditure is estimated at 1 billion pounds, a figure that was arrived at after considering the settlement of the incurred interest charges.Advertising We will write a custom report sample on Edinburgh Tram System Project specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The interest was accruing on a 30-year credit that the committee had taken to cover a shortfall in the project’s funding. The tramway began operations in May 2014 after being behind schedule for more than five years. Management of the Project Various stakeholders were involved to help in achieving the project’s deliverables. Hence, their participation in this project had different impacts at different levels. These stakeholders included the government, contractors, politicians, courts, and the Scottish population6. As the main stakeholder, the government provided funding for the project. The government was also involved in the supervision and monitoring of the project. The project was divided into a number of distinct contracts. The various contracts were let to different companies or contractors. The contractual framework consisted of System Design Services (SDS), Joint Revenue Committee (JRC), vehicle maintenance, and supply (TRAMCO), provider of infrastructure and maintenance (IFRASCO), and MUDFA (Multi Utilities Diversion Framework Agreement). Courts also became part of the stakeholders who came in handy to settle conflicts that arose between the two main contractors. In several instances, the court ruled in favor of the development and continuation of the project. Contractors were at the heart of the witnessed delays and controversies. Change in technology raised the cost of project implementation, which in turn resulted in conflicts in terms of the need for extra funding7. Conflicts between contractors led to court battles that took time to be ruled. However, contractors also played a crucial role in the actual implementation of the project. Project planners were also to blame for the delays. The management of the project as a whole seems to have had serious challenges. To start with, the management did not do a proper cost analysis for the project.Advertising Looking for report on railway transport? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More A constant review of the project’s cost raised many questions regarding the validity of the methods that the group that was managing the project was using in arriving at figures, which kept on changing. The inconsistencies served to raise doubts over the abilities of the project managers in handling the project while questioning their intentions in altering the figures. The planners had carried out an incorrect project analysis and estimations, which resulted in variations in cost and the need for supplement budgets to complete the project. The scope of the project was also cumbersome to manage. Variations in the role and part that depended on different stakeholders also resulted in delays. Delays in one facet resulted in interruptions in others. The issue of close monitoring of the project was also not well managed. The laid out structure for managing the project at different stages was faulty as it was evidenced in the swaying of support at different levels. Communication b reakdown between stakeholders also led to conflicts and delays. Project Management against Theory The management of the project, especially in relation to many disputes that arose, seemed to be in line with some models of the game theory. A good example is the standoff that was observed between BBS and TIE. The two firms were staring at each other. The first party to back off was expected to be the loser. The real disaster is imminent if none of the parties backs off. This scenario resembles the ‘chicken game’ in the game theory. Such a game assumes that both parties to the game move simultaneously as Osborne confirms8. However, the actions that were adopted by the two sides were chronological whereby each side acted in rejoinder to the effect that was taken by the opponent side. If the solution to the disagreements ends up taking an unnecessary duration, the implication is the anticipated risks will be heightened. This situation was evident between the Scottish governm ent and the project managers. In the event of the adoption of the nuclear position that involves the cessation of the agreement, with the service provider choosing to present the issue to judges, there is a higher probability of each side being defeated. However, thoughts by each party that its opponent might be crazy enough to take the dispute to such extent may persuade both of them to settle the scour. The project managers seem to have thought that the Edinburgh council would have caved in at some point in time. They held on to its position in terms of seeking more funding for the project. This situation reveals the long standoff that existed between the two sides. It resulted in a court battle that helped to solve the circumstances that were becoming an increasingly expensive affair with each passing day. At some point, speculations were rife that a compromise deal was in the offing that would have seen BBS eliminated from certain sections of the project. However, the project ad ministrators would have been given the opportunity to finish the sections that they had been working on at that moment. Lessons Learnt From Similar Projects and Their Links to the Tram Project The United Kingdom has had numerous other tramway projects that offer important lessons when it comes to project management. All of them have had varying challenges that were solved in different ways. As such, Docherty and Shaw say that they can offer a great insight in terms of approaching such projects9. A good example is the Nottingham Express Transit that is located in Nottingham, England. The project took 15 years to be completed. The project’s cost was determined in advance. Hence, issues of increased costs were rare. The best bidders were chosen to carry out the project. This plan helped to ensure that the project went on smoothly from its initiation to its completion. Another unique feature of the Nottingham tramway that contributed to its success was that it involved a public-p rivate partnership. Such kind of partnership in public projects has always shown higher degree of success compared to projects that are run or handled entirely by the government. The private sector has a sense of accountability since it bases its activities on adherence to strict business rules. It takes into account prudent use of resources and maximisation of benefits that arise from any endeavour that it is involved in. The concept of profit maximisation that is advocated when it comes to private entities plays an immense role in ensuring the best possible use of the available resources by avoiding any unnecessary wastage. Further, the private sector always looks for the best specialties when it comes to running its operations. It does not rely on political affiliations or ethnicity in hiring its personnel. This strategy helps to avoid the negative influence that politics may have in the successful implementation of public projects. Involvement of the private sector into the Nott ingham tramway project helped in availing more funds to the project as Transport Scotland reveals10. This move had the effect of eliminating the need for borrowing large amounts of money for the project. Such huge funds have the effect of attracting large interest rates that serve to increase the overall costs of the project. Successful projects such as the Nottingham Express Transit offer great lessons for the Edinburgh tramway project. One of the main lessons is the separation of politics from such projects. This criterion helps in keeping away politicians who tend to use such projects as platforms to advance their political interests. As Rodger asserts, another lesson is on the importance of including the private sector in the design, funding, and implementation of such projects11. The private sector brings with it efficiency in terms of time management and prudent management of projects. This plan ensures not only timely completion of projects but also proper use of public funds to avoid unnecessary wastage of public resources. Tramway projects such as Tramlink, Metrolink, Midland Metro, and Nottingham Express Transit among others all bear some similarity with Edinburgh project. They have a link in the sense that they were intended to connect various places across different cities. The UK Tram is an organisation that represents the interests of all stakeholders and industry players in the tram industry. The projects were also intended to lessen traffic jams that were experienced in these cities while also providing a better alternative in efforts that were aimed at minimising the emission of greenhouse gases by cars. Conclusion The Edinburgh project was surrounded by lots of controversies in relation to costs, delays in completion, and political influence that slowed down the project while hurting taxpayers. It can borrow lessons from other similar projects. The project is located in Edinburgh in the United Kingdom. It was meant to connect York place and E dinburgh to reduce traffic congestion by motorists. The project managers deviated from the project’s contract that recognised it as a fixed-cost contract by demanding additional funding. This cost implication was the cause of all other controversies that followed in the course of the project. There are great lessons that Edinburgh project can learn from other similar projects that have had significant success. Nottingham Express Transit serves as a perfect example. Lessons from it can help to find ways of avoiding issues that haunted the Edinburgh tramway project. Recommendations There is a need for more public-private partnerships to be deployed when carrying out projects of this magnitude. Such projects involve heavy investments whose implementation has an immense direct impact on taxpayers. Such partnerships will bring greater efficiency since the private sector is known for conducting its affairs with greater professionalism compared to the public sector. Elements such as expertise and extra funding that are provided by the private sector are bound to see better and more successful implementation of public projects. Governments also need to hold contractors accountable in the implementation of projects as opposed to curving into the outrageous demands by contractors who do not fall within the postulations of the contracts. Bibliography Audit Scotland, ‘Edinburgh Trams Interim Report’, The Accounts Commission [website], 12 February 2011, audit-scotland.gov.uk/docs/central/2010/nr_110202_trams.pdf. Boateng, P., Megaproject Case Study, Edinburgh Tram Network Project, Edinburgh Publishing Company, Scotland, UK, 2008. Crowther, G.L., National Series of Waterway, Tramway and Railway Atlases, G.L. Crowther, Preston, 2013. Dalton, A., ‘135 Changes, Â £16m Bill: Latest Trams Furore’, Scotsman [website], 12 April 2010, scotsman.com/news/scotland/top-stories/135-changes-163-16m-bill-latest-trams-furore-1-798991. Docherty, I., Shaw, J., Traffic Jam: Ten Years of sustainable Transport in the UK, Policy Press, Bristol, UK, 2008. Lowe, J.G., Edinburgh trams: a case study of a complex project, Association of Researchers in Construction Management, Leeds, UK, 2010. McKie, R., ‘Edinburghs tram system opens – Â £375m over budget and three years late’, The Guardian UK, 1 June 2014, theguardian.com/uk-news/2014/jun/01/edinburgh-tram-system-opens. Osborne, M.J., Rubenstein, A., A Course in Game Theory, MIT Press, Boston, 2005. Rodger, R., The Transformation of Edinburgh: Land, Property and Trust in the Nineteenth Century, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2004. Transport Scotland, Scottish Transport Appraisal Guidance Version, The Scottish Government, Edinburgh, 2008. Footnotes 1 P. Boateng, Megaproject Case Study, Edinburgh Tram Network Project, Edinburgh Publishing Company, Scotland, UK, 2008, p. 9. 2 J.G. Lowe, Edinburgh trams: a case study of a complex project, Association of Researchers in Construction Management, Leeds, UK, 2010, p. 1289. 3 G.L. Crowther, National Series of Waterway, Tramway and Railway Atlases, G.L. Crowther, Preston, 2013, p. 12. 4 R. McKie, ‘Edinburghs tram system opens – Â £375m over budget and three years late’, The Guardian UK, 1 June 2014, para. 6, theguardian.com/uk-news/2014/jun/01/edinburgh-tram-system-opens. 5 Lowe, p. 1291. 6 Crowther, p. 33. 7 A. Dalton, ‘135 Changes, Â £16m Bill: Latest Trams Furore’, Scotsman [website], 12 April 2010, scotsman.com/news/scotland/top-stories/135-changes-163-16m-bill-latest-trams-furore-1-798991. 8 M.J. Osborne A. Rubenstein, A Course in Game Theory, MIT Press, Boston, 2005, p. 12. 9 I. Docherty J. Shaw, Traffic Jam: Ten Years of sustainable Transport in the UK, Policy Press, Bristol, UK, 2008, p. 56. 10 Transport Scotland, Scottish Transport Appraisal Guidance Version, The Scottish Government, Edinburgh, 2008, p. 11. 11 R. Rodger, The Transformation of Edinburgh: Lan d, Property and Trust in the Nineteenth Century, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2004, p. 33.

Airport Funding Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Airport Funding - Assignment Example Airport improvement program (AIP) is one such means of obtaining grants. These federal grants have a series of guidelines and requirements to be met in order to qualify for the grants. In the later sections this paper will focus on the uniform land use review process (ULURP) and how it affects the two airports located in Queens. Federal AIP Grants are issued to airports that are on the NIAS list of significant airports throughout the United States and its holdings. These grants are issued to make infrastructure improvements, aid in noise compliance, provide for safety and security. Not all capitol improvements will meet the requirements for the AIP money. The grant funds come from a trust fund that congress set up to meet the needs of the AIP grants in conjunction with meeting the goals of the national integrated airport system. Since the grants pay for a portion of the project cost based on size of airport, the airport sponsor or private entity applying for a grant has to demonstrate that there are monies to pay for the difference between the grant funds and the full cost of the project. In recent years further legislation has added taxes to airport ticket purchases for the purpose of supporting the trust fund. The AIP has a provision for airports to gain additional funding towards approved projects by imposing a charge on passengers that is used to offset financing of major capitol improvements for infrastructure, noise reduction and provide for safety and security. The original code provided for one two or three dollars to be added to the ticket cost. The current code allows for up to four dollars and fifty cents ($4.50) to be added to ticket price for the purpose of financing approved projects. This will also reduce the amount of grant money received for the projects. (faa.gov) The uniform land use review procedure is a process by which the city government and general public has input into

Business Ethics and Corporate Social Responsibility Final Assignment Essay

Business Ethics and Corporate Social Responsibility Final Assignment - Essay Example The company should not recall its products and should stay present on the market, however it should prove its ethical position to its stakeholders to keep its business in India and thus to achieve self-interest satisfaction. Below is provided more detailed analysis of Coca Cola’s business activity in India with the application of 7 major moral standards. First of all, this approach is based on the universal ethical values which have in its core the value of trustworthiness. Based on the trustworthiness as one of the core values of the universal ethical values, Coca Cola’s behavior should based on honesty, promise-keeping, loyalty, and transparency. If the company is honest towards its stakeholders, including the Indian consumers it should honestly declare about its business and true quality of its products. While the company declares that its products are of high quality and safe for consumption, it also lacks the integrity based on the case studies of controversies in Belgium, Antwerp and employment of African-Americans. By allowing discrimination based on the race, Coca Cola failed to demonstrate its integrity and to act consistently according to its stated principles and values. If the lab results are true, Coca-Cola has failed in another one universal ethical value – promise keeping. If the company has not mentione d in its campaign that the drink is absolutely safe, its initial responsibility as a business should be ensuring safety and quality of the products. If to view promise-keeping value as a guarantee of safety and high quality, the company’s activity in India can be labeled as â€Å"ethical†. But in case if some of the stakeholders (employees, management) have not disclosed information about the quality of the products and its harmful impact on Coca Cola India consumers, the activity will be viewed as unethical. In case the lab results are true and the products really contain pesticide residues and other harmful

Water Conservation Essay Example for Free

Water Conservation Essay Water is an integral part of land/soil productivity. Its misuse can cause both degradation and erosion of soils. Management of water resource is considered to necessary for well being of human life as well as crop yields. There is a gap between the seasonal availability of water and its equitable supply throughout the year. Accordingly the storage of water and passage through soils is very important. It is well known that about 70% area in this country is subject to varying degree of water stress. There are areas with heavy rainfall but water problems become predominant during non-monsoon periods. It is thus a matter of concern to create a redistribution system and requirements as and when it is needed. Although there are many methods for water management, the two important methods are mentioned as follows. (I) Watershed management (II) Rainwater harvesting (I) Watershed Management : A watershed is an area bounded by the divide line of water flow so that a distinct drainage basin of any small or big water course or stream can be identified. The rain falling over this area will flow through only one point of the whole watershed. In other words, the entire area will be drained only by one stream or water course. In this way we will have definitive water resource which can be assessed and analyzed for planning for the optimum utilization through ground water, wells, tube wells, small ponds, bigger tanks or reservoirs. Watershed management is very important for rainfall and resultant run-off. More than 900 watersheds of the flood prone rivers have been identified and are at present in operation. The development of delayed through propagation of water harvesting technology is also based on the concept of micro watershed. Himalayas are one of the most critical watersheds in the world. The damage to reservoirs and irrigation systems and misused Himalayan slopes is mounting as are the costs for the control measures during the flood season every year. The vast hydroelectric power potential can be harnessed from the Himalayas watersheds on a sustainable basis. (II) Rain water Harvesting : Water harvesting technologies have established the economic and practical feasibility for inclusion in integrated watershed management plans. A number  of such structures in the Hirakud catchment have revealed that these are desirable for protection of land, restoration of degraded land for creation of micro irrigation potential of reuse of water. This would also help in increased production based productivity for generation of employment of opportunities. The concept of watershed management has been extended to agro-industrial watersheds which take care of agro-industrial development.

“Stylistic Techniques in Kate Chopin’s The Story of an Hour” Essay

For centuries, American literature has served as indication on the power of words to articulate encouragement for change by creating a call to action. Indeed, literature â€Å"the art that expresses life in words† (Tanvir, Para. 4) has the ability to transform the comprehensive human race. Consequently, literature serves as a record of all the dreams that made such change a possibility throughout history. Each successive era, literature begins and ends with great writers communicating their own message to their intended readers. When skillfully written, enthusiastic, and engaging a piece of literature possesses the power to create a substantial contribution. One such great writer, Kate Chopin often wrote about an alternative way of thinking in regards to a women’s position in the 19th Century. Chopin was well known for some of the most shaping feminist stories and novels during her time. Accordingly, in her short story â€Å"The Story of an Hour† Chopin tells the tale of Mrs. Mallard’s reaction to the death of her husband, instead of fearing the forlorn widow years ahead of her; she falters upon a different comprehension all together. After hearing the news of her husband’s alleged death, Mrs. Mallard retreats to her bedroom in solitude. Although Mrs. Mallard is initially distraught by the news, she sits down, gawks out a window and astonishingly, it is spring and everything comes to life. As the reader takes an expedition with Mrs. Mallard on her revelation of true independence, Chopin’s strong word choice sheds light on and develops ideas that articulate, boost and deepen the content. Truly, her short story is comprehensible and clear-cut; Chopin plainly describes people and objects without wasting any words. While â€Å"The Story of an Hour† ... ...e of structural organization and powerful word choice work as a guide for the readers to gain a better understanding of Mrs. Mallard and an exploration of how she finds herself free after her husband’s sudden death. Works Cited Chopin, Kate. The Story of an Hour. Cummings Study Guide, 2006. Web. 10 Feb 2012. . Olson A. Gary et.al. Style and Readability in Business Writing: A Sentence-Combining Approach. Random House, 1985 Stepanek, Jennifer. "6 1 Trait Definitions." Education Northwest. Northwest Regional Educational Laboratory, 2012. Web. 11 Feb 2012. . Tanvir, Nabila. Chief Qualities of Literature. Online Library of Classic English Literature Books. 14 Aug. 2009. Taylor, Marilyn. Tips for Finding the Right Words. Writer 119.12 (2006).

English the Most Amazing Subject

English Class 8 Task 1 Reading exercise Read the novel, ‘The Boy in The Striped Pyjamas’ by John Boyne; Chapters 1- 4 Focus on: †¢ What themes are explored in the first four chapters? †¢ The relationship between Bruno and Maria. Task 2 Speaking and Listening Prepare a 2 minute talk to your class about something that really irritates you. It does not necessarily require a very formal language. Follow the steps below: 1. Decide on a topic. It’s always best to talk about things you actually know about and to express feelings you really have. . Structure your talk. It may be brief, but it still requires: †¢ An opening in which you quickly grab the audience’s attention and let them know what you’re going to talk about. †¢ A main body in which you give a couple of reasons or ideas to support your point. †¢ A conclusion in which you leave the listeners with a memorable phrase. Task 3 Grammar Practice adverbs and adjectives using the following websites: †¢ http://www. schoolexpress. com/fws/cat. php? id=2287 †¢ http://sites. google. com/site/jostombaugh/adjectivesadverbs Task 4 Spelling Learn the spellings of the following words: 1. Autumn 2. Knowledge 3. Development 4. Embarrass 5. Definite 6. Audible 7. Concentration 8. Assessment 9. Accommodation 10. Diamond 11. Beginning 12. Height 13. Queue 14. Business 15. Beneath 16. Tomorrow 17. Jealous 18. Questionnaire 19. Issue 20. Atmosphere 21. Continuous 22. Marriage 23. Imaginary 24. Improvise 25. Miscellaneous 26. Happened 27. Process 28. February 29. Forty 30. Separate 31. Straight 32. Success 33. Reference 34. Technique 35. Conscience 36. Murmur 37. Diary 38. Design 39. Column 40. Weird 41. Listening 42. Montague 43. Mantua 44. Capulet 45. Shakespeare 46. Idolatry 47. Adversaries 48. Nuptial 49. Forfeit 50. Foreshadowing 51. Shroud 52. Apothecary 53. Tybalt 54. Abram 55. Balthasar 56. Rosaline 57. Cemetery 58. Epitaph 59. Exile 60. Enmity ———————– NOTE: †¢ Students will be assessed on the given tasks when they return to school. †¢ Any queries regarding these tasks should be addressed to: [email  protected] com

The Legend of the Fifth Sun

The Aztec creation myth which describes how the world originated is called the Legend of the Fifth Sun. Several different versions of this myth exist, and this is for a few reasons. First is because the stories were originally passed down by oral tradition. Also a factor is that the Aztecs adopted and modified gods and myths from other tribes that they met and conquered. According to the Aztec creation myth, the world of the Aztecs at the time of the Spanish colonization was the fifth era of a cycle of creation and destruction—they believed their world had been created and destroyed four times before. During each of the four previous cycles, different gods governed the earth through a dominant element and then destroyed it. These worlds were called suns. In the Beginning In the beginning, according to Aztec mythology, the creator couple of Tonacacihuatl and Tonacateuctli (also known as the god Ometeotl, who was both male and female) gave birth to four sons, the Tezcatlipocas of the East, North, South, and West. After 600 years, the sons began to create the universe, including the creation of cosmic time, called suns. These gods eventually created the world and all the other deities. After the world was created, the gods gave light to humans. But to do this, one of the gods had to sacrifice himself by leaping into a fire. Each subsequent sun was created by the personal sacrifice of at least one of the gods. Thus, a key element of the story—like in all Aztec culture—is that sacrifice is required to begin renewal. Four Cycles The first god to sacrifice himself was Tezcatlipoca (also known as Black Tezcatlipoca), who leaped into the fire and started the First Sun, called 4 Tiger. This period was inhabited by giants who ate only acorns, and it came to an end when the giants were devoured by jaguars. The world lasted 676 years, or 13 52-year cycles, according to the pan-Mesoamerican calendar.The Second Sun, or 4-Wind Sun, was governed by Quetzalcoatl (also known as White Tezcatlipoca). Here, the earth was populated by humans who ate only pià ±on nuts. Tezcatlipoca wanted to be Sun, however, and turned himself into a tiger and threw Quetzalcoatl off his throne. This world came to an end through catastrophic hurricanes and floods. The few survivors fled to the tops of the trees and were transformed into monkeys. This world also lasted 676 years.The Third Sun, or 4-Rain Sun, was dominated by water; its ruling deity was the rain god Tlaloc, and its people ate seeds that grew in the water. This world came to an end when the god Quetzalcoatl made it rain fire and ashes, and the survivors became turkeys, butterflies, or dogs. It lasted just seven cycles—364 years.The Fourth Sun, the 4-Water Sun, was governed by the goddess Chalchiuthlicue, sister and wife of Tlaloc. Here, the people ate maize. A great flood marked the end of this world, and all the people were transformed into fish. Like the first and second suns, the 4-Water Sun lasted for 676 years. Creating the Fifth Sun At the end of the fourth sun, the gods gathered at Teotihuacan to decide who had to sacrifice him/herself for the new world to begin. The god Huehuetà ©otl—the old fire god—started a sacrificial bonfire, but none of the most important gods wanted to jump into the flames. The rich and proud god Tecuciztecatl—Lord of the Snails—hesitated, and during that hesitation, the humble and poor Nanahuatzin (meaning full of sores) leaped into the flames and became the new sun. Tecuciztecatl jumped in after him to become a second sun. However, the gods realized that two suns would overwhelm the world, so they threw a rabbit at Tecuciztecal and he became the moon—that is why you can still see the rabbit in the moon today. The two celestial bodies were set in motion by Ehecatl, the god of the wind, who fiercely and violently blew the sun into motion. The Fifth Sun The Fifth Sun (called 4-Movement) is ruled by Tonatiuh, the sun god. This fifth sun is characterized by the daysign Ollin, which means movement. According to Aztec beliefs, this indicated that this world would come to an end through earthquakes, and all the people will be eaten by sky monsters. The Aztecs considered themselves the People of the Sun, and therefore their duty was to nourish the Sun god through blood offerings and sacrifices. Failure to do this would cause the end of their world and the disappearance of the sun from the sky. The New Fire Ceremony At the end of each 52-year cycle, the Aztec priests carried out the New Fire Ceremony, or binding of the years. The legend of the five suns predicted the end of a calendar cycle, but it was not known which cycle would be the last one. The Aztec people would clean their houses, discarding all household idols, cooking pots, clothing, and mats. During the last five days, fires were extinguished and the people climbed on their roofs to await the fate of the world. On the last day of the calendar cycle, the priests would climb the Star Mountain, today known in Spanish as Cerro de la Estrella, and watch the rise of the Pleiades to ensure it followed its normal path. A fire drill was placed through the heart of a sacrificial victim; if the fire could not be lit, the myth said, the sun would be destroyed forever. The successful fire was then brought to Tenochtitlan to relight hearths throughout the city. According to the Spanish chronicler Bernardo Sahagun, the New Fire ceremony was conducted every 52 years in villages throughout the Aztec world. Updated by K. Kris Hirst Sources: Adams REW. 1991. Prehistoric Mesoamerica. Third Edition. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press.Berdan FF. 2014. Aztec Archaeology and Ethnohistory. New York: Cambridge University Press.Read KA. 1986. The Fleeting Moment: Cosmogony, Eschatology, and Ethics in Aztec Religion and Society. The Journal of Religious Ethics 14(1):113-138.Smith ME. 2013. The Aztecs. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell.Taube KA. 1993. Aztec and Maya Myths. Fourth Edition. Austin: University of Texas Press.Van Tuerenhout DR. 2005. The Aztecs. New Perspectives. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO Inc.